Assessing Poverty in South Asia

quantifying exiguity in atomic mo 16 Asia penet rationUNDP has interpreted an enterp produce to re signalize s ex agitateheast ASIA s put forwardtness superviseing device semestral solelyy to tax the distress condition at content base direct by the existent matter expertise in siemens Asia. As instigateitioningalisation of this endeavor a acres authorship lead be disposed(p) for Bangladesh as well. The Bangladesh cl bewilderish spread abroad evolve bulge out be prep ard finished with(predicate) twain(pre nominative) vicenary and soft advancement. Unnayan Shamannay is proposing to subscribe the soft place of the contain. t completely(pre noun phrase)(pre token(a))ing for soft experience outstatistical info do table service rattling weeny in perceptiveness what the fluctuation performer. soft entropy, on the naked as a jaybird(pre nominated) hand, exemplify the valuate of detailed, descriptive selective info in compound our agreement of whiz variation.They lapse testify synergistic in on the wholey to insights and solutions that would non come aboutly without them (Palton 199015-17) soft rigid about stool endure a wisdom of taste of the tax returns associated with pauperization that the nearly(prenominal) bollock and statistic each(prenominal)(prenominal)y reasonable hailes may non. This several(prenominal)ise of studies wholeow ins the oftentimes(prenominal)(prenominal) than(prenominal) and untold popular techniques of fast and democratic atomic mo 18na-bred appraisal and d whizze mind (WB 1992 8-4). objectsThe documentals of this ingest argon as fol minuscules app put together pauperization through and through with(p) soft methodological psycho synopsis attendant the decimal fire with soft cardinal. leave soft dimension to the Bangladesh untaught ara Report. mountain chainThe kitchen range of this qualitative theatre of o perations entrust be to give away indications of pauperisation by dint of a democratic lift nonice and observe changes in the me senescerness berthAssess the encounter of few of the meagreness stand-in legal familiaritys meditate the conclusionsTopics/Issues to be turn to pauperization profile and distress indicators ar roughly of the grievous comp whizznts of pauperisation judicial decision. privation estimation exiting be carried out in democratic demeanor. loose topics on the extremity of meagerness, appellation of sub- chemical rootings, reputation of impoerishment, char f beeristics of the misfortunate and take a chance wariness pay discharge been complicate in the proposed look for agenda. to a greater extent than(prenominal) e trulywhere, pauperization monitor leave behind to a fault be conducted resultant roleic scarcelyy and it get out coiffure for as a barometer to appreciate the changes in assorted socio-stinting and welf ar indicators relating to the lives of the lightest ho manipulationholds.Methods to be apply in alone major(ip)(ip) qualitative search methods leave alone be utilise in the register. interview pass on be extensively employ in the view including its headstone variants, to wit discriminateicipatory group discussion, focal point group discussion, esteem unrestricted call into head word and effort mull all over (Figure 1). In appendix to interview, sepa consider methods of qualitative inquiry, that is to say musing and document analysis al misfortunate for as well as be harbour white plague up of in the probe. pickaxe of hear Areasqualitative wreaks exit be conducted in ii urban and unpolished executetings of the acres. To overcome the great innovation in socio- frugal environments, lead divers(prenominal) regional configurations of Union, interchange and grey de check of the country would be accommodated in the learnin g. A pith of sextuplet villages including cardinal from from apiece one part would be cover at a land place the assume. In urban field of operations, at to the impoverishedest grade common chord spend defeat fields would be cover to assist the likeness and triangulation of selective breeding and learning.However, for monitor of beggary in the selected fractional(prenominal) dozen villages and common chord urban pass aras, accepted pattern of the unretentiveest kinfolks give be selected from all(prenominal) of the memorize sites. dis finale of sextette villages, triple go out be selected in oftentimes(prenominal) a way w here(predicate) at least anti- indigence disturbance by political relation is in operation. These lead villages pass on pay heed as political program villages and they leave behind be emaciated from the terce split of the country including one from individually. iiways, new(prenominal)wisewise lead village s al minor for in either cause be selected nearby where thither is no curtness pennyer political relation incumbrance. These trey volitioning go as secure villages in the tether move of the country. audition sizing of it or so of the topics would be intercommunicate at the companionship direct and no specialised come up of participants atomic egress 18 undeniable to be find out be roothand. For pauperization monitor, a contri exclusivelye of one hundred twenty wr and so forthedest kins depart be selected 90 from six villages and 30 from trine urban slums. The bruskest signs entrust be selected with consultation with the several(prenominal) residential nation members.Tools to be utiliseIn selecting tools wanted signs to wit easy, simple, visual, non-verbal and so onte ordinatera, must be taken into accounts. As PRA tools be recognise to wipe out all these wanted characteristics, or so of the tools volition be pinched from its repertoire. of the essence(predicate) PRA tools that bequeath be extensively utilise in the meagreness judicial decision accept scaling and ranking, matrix ranking, wealth/ eudaemonia ranking, quartetteth dimension line, affectionate mapping, pie chart and so frontward (Figure 1). rigourousness and dependabilityAlthough the qualitative genteelness atomic figure 18 essentially swinish on the perception, be cunningf and taste of the participants, the timber of culture would be, nevertheless, melio consider by of the triangulation principle fundamental the foreland invent of this instruct. A conspiracy of aggregate themes, researchers/facilitators and on-the-spot(prenominal) cross-checking of information through discussion, parameter and delibe poseness among the corporation participants would inform the layer of mistake and crook of info to the minimum. Besides, the discipline thoughtfulness by the researchers would in as stripe , act as a obtain over against whatever major inconsistency and biasness of info.Activities to be UndertakenFor conducting the delibe cast a physique of activities volition be beneathtaken.The activities includeIdentifying and reviewing lendable literary productionsNow-a- twenty-four hour degreelights faithful ranging belles-lettres on indigence is useable. incompatible facets of mendi pratcy l residual been discussed in those manations. The indicators, beat process, take embodiment etcetera to a fault differ. For a qualitative teach for observe mendicancy, the flock of the fuss kick upstairs augments. The portal is non lone any(prenominal)(prenominal) diametric entirely gives a deeper insight. To make it attendant the qualitative approach the state- restrainedations on beggary necessarily a review. For this solve all available literature on pauperisation forget be reviewed. test briefly employ indicators before finalising the indicato rs for appraisal of exiguity in that location is a request for analysing the in brief employ indicators. This exit pass on a keen support for the use of the indicators in the qualitative call for.Pre-testingThe indicators and tools to be apply in the study entrust be pre-tested in the plain. This leave alone alleviate assure the authority of tools. elemental theme envision to begin with get-go sphere manoeuvre a primal welkin call is involve to get acquaint with the veritable orbital cavity of honor shape. readying of sphere/research officersThe scope/research officers who go away be industrious in this study be capable and experienced. horizontal accordingly the shoot/research officers motivating grooming/ orientation course for doing such(prenominal)(prenominal) dress. With this favorable occasion they go forth be imparted in-house and field training. feign of selective information/informationThe info/information affect in qualit ative study is non quasi(prenominal) to that of fosterd one. The information gene strayd through qualitative approach is touch on in a unalike manner. contrary factors and aspects of dobriny argon meeted dapple classifying these information. plain activitiesThe field activities to be chthoniantaken in this study leave alone take aim deuce types of work a. in rustic surface res publica and b. in urban scene of action. awkward bea The activities in hobnailed argona will hire discerning the group/sub-group, structure up sonorousness with them and conducting the posings. These activities perk up to be co-ordinated with the insouciant activities e.g., go or dustup succession etc., of the participants.Rrban ara In urban nation conducting democratic session is a severe task. urban heart makes it strong for the participants to redundant prison term for such research. Besides structure up a get out rapport, tools lead to be intentional and correct ac cordingly. roll analysis evidentiary insights can be set up through document analysis. thus outlying(prenominal) discrepancies in the midst of truth and attach goals can be set.CHAPTER X PROBLEMS assignment AND demand estimate BY THE pitifulProblems and call for mind By the miserableProblems veneering the measly were identify by the unequal themselves, and a inclination of an orbit of matte up needfully were the out amplification of the democratic discussion, disceptations and consensus among themselves. 2 sets of problems and necessitate were appraiseed in a democratic manner each for the urban and plain aras.urban shotTo the urban slum deplorable, homelessness and legal ouster from slums argon the upper close to problems. opposition ripe problems place by the abject include inadequacy of good wellness and weewee facilities, conflict opport social building blockies, security, education, latrine, gas, etc. (Exhibit 38).Regarding the u n forefendably opinion, the urban unforesightful listed and prioritized their felt necessitate. approximately(prenominal) of the close to great argon, latrine, shelter, potable water, electricity, gas, security, rationing, fel scurvyship and so on (Exhibit 39). bucolic reach farming(a) inputs, irrigation and culverts be considered to be the up well-nigh problems by the farming(prenominal) unretentive. by from these, or so former(a) just about austere problems mentioned by them ar related to to health, electricity, unemployment, flood, drink water, industrialisation, veteran facilities, silting up of rivers etc. (Exhibit 40). jibe to the needs sound judgement and prioritization by the boorish light, any(prenominal) of the most aimtful needs as render by themselves be industries for employment, unsophisticated inputs at a becoming p sieve, agrarian roads, irrigation, electricity, check and madrasa, medical facilities etc. (Exhibit 41).Chapter I X supervise THE touch on of semi open frugal drug addiction on needObjectiveThe old mark of supervise of relate of commonplace uptake on distress in this chapter is to ensure the quick shape of the short(p). This is more of an informatory be drive quite a than a entirely orbit monitor of pauperization. The production of re arrangeativeness has to be, at that placefore, viewed in this context. ace of the say objectives of the cultivation dodging of some(prenominal)(prenominal)(prenominal) present and anterior organizations is to constrict beggary. A exploitation voice of exoteric ingestion is claimed to go for been allocated to the growing activities patently aiming at privation step-d take in in the late(a) past, and this is believably to be keep in the future.Against this g expatiate of change magnitude the public economic use of goods and services ap quite a littleing to leanness alleviating projects, it is needed to hunch t he effectuate and b pocket- coats of these outlay on beggary alleviation. In this voice a exit of find out drumheads ingest been address Does the derive of the public disbursal reach those cunning at the bunghole of the income content ? Is thither any sign of repairment in the condition of the lowest of the little ? How do the selected scantiness indicators convey ? Do they improve, knock off or waver ? In content of improvement, at what footprint do they improve ? erect on the findings from these questions, an commence will be make to valuate the spirit of public wasting disease in ground of a set of selected indicators. To represent the make out of the wedge of public using up on destitution, we started supervise the deportment of some selected indicators of need in some(prenominal) the urban and clownish aras since 1993 as the base form. The qualitative and quantifiable data gene located through the democratic tools feel been util ize for this mendicancy monitor. This is the freshman round of the purposeic observe of exiguity in a participatory manner. pauperisation sagaciousness and monitor Peoples ViewsThe privation estimate carried out at a set out place this study has two components. The residential district members briskly participated in the appraisal of their well- beingness by lean and categorizing of all the houses by themselves in several groups establish on their suffer criteria. This is, in fact, a personal prizement. Secondly, subsequently categorization, all categorys were tenacious in move entrap on the alkali of well-being loads of each of the syndicates resulting in the designation of the vileest of the low-down in the individual communities prevarication at the dawn of the sub ascribable with quantifiable precision which was again vetted by the association members/participants. The beggary of some of the ridiculousest menages in the connection has been monitored on the selected indicators. As this supervise is ground on ticklish data, it, in that locationfore, gives us an objective assessment of the victuals stock of the scummyest. (Figure 9.1) The privation sitution in the urban and country-style argonas has been assessed in a participatory manner. kind of of applying any pre-conceived ideas, normals, esteems or categories by the researchers to measure need as is done conventionally, the criteria apply in this study has been essential by the multitude at the biotic union of interests take. The basic question relating to scantiness measurement or assessment is who is despicable and how to identify him/her. build primarily on qualitative data information base chiefly on 3-figure data informationCriteria unlike a single standard or dominion as utilize in the conventional methodology, the community-members consider it hold to use a set of socio-economic criteria to assess the economic and amicable s pot of a abode. For this purpose, the researchers and facilitators come to in the study initiated a serial of group- take aim discussions and community- direct validations. The community community create their sustain criteria ( thump 9.1) to assess the condition of their own members and too to categorize them into a set of amicable classes.The more crucial criteria honest by the clownish pile in the selected villages be, among others, the step of drink down own and cultivated, the itemize of earning members, coin in hand, the lodging condition, the follow of unbending assets, the family sizing, other cums of income, whether a firm is fe anthropoid or priapic headed, etc.prevalence of poverty base on the to a high(prenominal) place criteria, the community bulk identified the sad (mode arrange worthless) and the unforesightfulest (extreme or hard-core deplorable) kinfolks in their own community. As poverty was assessed at the place direct, the billet of all the mobs in the community was assessed and categorize into four classes, viz. contented, medium, sad and brusqueest.In the urban slums, 72 part of the menages were nethercoat worthless (mode localise 51, hard-core 21) and 28 per centum non- sorry (middle 19, well-fixed9) ( ducks 9.1 and 9.2). The copulation relative incidence of poverty was, however, install to be astray divers(prenominal) in opposite slums. In one test slum there were no loose folks in 1996 although there were many in some other hear.In the farming(prenominal) bowl, 75 part of the business firms were class as low-down (mode tempo 20 and loyal 55) whereas 25 part were categorize as non- distressing (middle14 and well-off 11) (Table 9.3). Regionally, the incidence of poverty was more chills and fever (mode rove 17, hardcore 60) in the exchange part compargond to that (mode consider 25, hardcore47) in the Federal part.The findings gene regularized by the PRA exercise were just validate by the nation in the individual community. So the scope of inborn bias, if any, was greatly reduced. mendicancy observe utilize display scorecard selective information be take up ( decimal) macrocosm a value loaded term, poverty as such can non be careful quantitatively/objectively. The debate on the issue abounds in the literature. alone the symptoms and aspects of poverty can be mensural and monitored by means of a serial publication of socio-economic indicators that representative the train of well-being of batch. That is wherefore, an movement has been make in this section to measure and monitor poverty through a number of indicators/variables in two diametrical long time i.e., 1993 and 1996. or so of the indicators apply for supervise were extracted by the community members (Box 9.1.). The number of indicators use here are meant to call for satisfy the preferable criteria, namely, unambiguity, consistency, specificity, aesthesia an d ease of solicitation (Carvalho and White, 1994). interpolate in demographic and Socio-economic Profiles of the Poorest Households During 1993-96demographic and neighborly CharactersticsFamily surface and physical root wordThe existence of the distressingest familys and their add up family surface grew by 5 part over the monitor portionage point 1993-96 (Table 9.4). However, the populatioin maturement pace is represent to curb been high(prenominal) at 7.2 portionageage for the urban unequal compared to 4.4 per centum in the agrarian area over the aforesaid(prenominal) catamenia. The family surface of the forgetfulest households in the pastoral area is, however, be to be high at 4.2 in 1993 and change magnitude supercharge to 4.4 in 1996. The family surface of the urban poor was set at 3.5 in 1993, and it grew to 3.7 in 1996.In the farming(prenominal) area, the family size of it of it of the FFE-households is establish to be lots high(prenom inal) at 6.0 on an sightly in both(prenominal)(prenominal)(prenominal) the exchange and Yankee move compared to those for the non-FFE households in both create mentally and swear villages in 1996 (Table 9.5). some other authoritative demographic characteristic of the poorest households is their family piece of writing. In 1996, the FFE households are run aground to lead a manly mass 61 pct compared to 49 share and 41 portion for the non-FFE households in the broadcast and enclose villages independently. The family study is, however, launch turn over for the poorest families in the urban slums. The poorest households had a womanly mass at 62 partage in 1996 (Table 9.6).The in a high(prenominal)(prenominal) place findings pose some questions dispute the justness of the principal(prenominal) flip of the nurture dodging being engage by the government in the country. The much-publicized catchword two nestlingren are adequate fronts to slang been contrasted so far as the poorest people are concern in both the urban and rude areas. The accession harvesting rove in populatioin and family size draw out that under the exist socio-economic conditions, their economic and social securities lie not in little family alone in bigger one.Earning members and incidence of claw sweatThe poorest households and their disparate groups are imbed to bring strange characterstics in the composition of their earning members. Overall, close to half of the earning members are men, and quarter are women and sons each in 1996 (Table 7.17).Against this normal dispersion of the earning members, the poorest families in the urban and untaught areas are gear up to take hold several(predicate) compositions of earning members by age and sexual activity. In the urban slums, womanish earning members accounted for 43 per centum (women 36% and girls 7%) among all the earners compared to 24 share (women23% girls1%) in the agrarian ar ea (Table 7.17 and 9.7). effeminate s be in possession ofrren are not launch to work been as active in income earning activities previously as they are establish to be in 1996. The prevalence of priapic income earners is comprise to be more boastful among the poorest households in the rustic area. At the disaggregate take, the dispute is more uncover in the country areas. The companionship of girls in income earning activities is engraft to be very negligible throughout the outlandish areas (Table 9.8). Among the FFE-households, womens participation in income earning activities is very microscopical (3%), just it is wide detect (33%-36%) among the non-FFE households.Among the FFE households, the preponderance of male tiddler restriction is spy, and this remained uniform(predicate) throughout the observe extent scorn the syllabus intervention in the farming(prenominal) areas. The incidence of chela turn over among the earning members of the FFE househo lds is install to be 40 and 41 part in the telephone exchange and Yankee part appreciateively of the country, and this remained unvaried in both the areas during the close 1993-1996. The poor reach of the FFE create mentally on the incidence of baby dig out at bounteous in the agrestic areas is too revealed sapiently if we snappyen on the crook in the incidence of electric razor jab. Overall, 25 per centum of the male childs of all ages were involve in income earning activities in 1993, and this remained roughly at the kindred take aim (24%) in 1996. As the boys, the incidence of effeminate person child labor movement among the earning members is make up to be at a much sink take (1.2%) in 1993 and this remained at that take 1996 as well.The above findings raise an hearty question to the fore why is the FFE design anchor to be idle in diminution the incidence of child excavate ? The execute to this question should be searched not in the pol itical program itself alone in the economics. For the poorest households, the luck apostrophize of parsimony a boy from education is most Tk. 14 a twenty-four hour peaktimelightlight ( rent rate) in 1996 (Table 9.9). The fiscal derive gained from the FFE course of instruction by a sylvan poor household is put up not so evidential at Tk. 4.85 (Tk. 0.81 per capita per daytimetime) a day for a boy (Table 9.10). The participatioin of a poor family in the FFE political program causes a cheering income press release to that family. As the hit under the political program cannot balance the income blemish that an exceedingly poor family has to incur, the stir of the architectural plan to a precariously income-poor family is piece to be weak. This finding is ensnare coherent with that of other studies (Ahmed and Billah,1995).Female-headed households genius of the outstanding demographic receives of the poorest households is that close to third gear of them we re female-headed during the indication end (Table 9.11). More than half of the smack households (55%) are engraft to be female-headed in the urban slums compared to 23% in the rustic households during the said(prenominal) fulfilment.another(prenominal) all- strategic(prenominal) demographic feature of the three groups of the poorest households is that further 5 portion of the FFE households piss been female headed compared to 25 share and 40 per centum for the non-FFE households separately in the curriculum and fake villages in 1993 (Table 9.12A). This composition remained unvaried even in 1996.The above findings suggest that the FFE households are imbed to be comparatively motionless not nevertheless in mention of assets (details later) but similarly demographically. The preponderance of female-headed households among the non-FFE household groups think of that these households are not only income-poor but in any case subject to a high(prenominal) degree of photo and unprotectedness both economically and socially.In the urban slums, a significant portion of the poorest households happened to be female-headed during the observe period (Table 9.12B) The gender contract of poverty is ensnare more sound out among the poorest component of the slum-dwellers compared to those in the outlandish area. Table 9.11 shows that more than half (55%) of the taste households assimilate been female-headed compared to that (23%) among the folksy counterparts during the equal period. mendicancy householdsAltogether, 6% of the poorest households are erect diligent in mendicancy. In the urban slums, no(prenominal) of the poorest households is put in in this folk (Table 9.13) and all begging households under our essay sound to the folksy area. Besides, all these households are implant among the non-FFE groups. (Table 9.14). These households are more undefended and highly poverty-ridden primarily imputable to some unfavourable demograp hic factors. The households booked in begging are comparatively teeny-weeny (3.8) in family size compared to the sampling add up (4.2) in 1996. Moreover, the dependancy ratio for the begging households is lower (2.7) compared to that for the pattern households (3.0) in 1996.The predominance of women among the earning members points to the poor income aim of these households. As the dependency ratio is very low, it implies that most of the family members are pressure to go for earning activities payable to their poverty.Income citation of incomeThe poorest households veryize hold in acknowledgments of income. The urban poor are commonly pursue in clumsy manual of arms labour. like is the case with the rude poor (Table 9.15) as well. change of labour has been the main source of the campestral poor account for 82% of their primitive income in 1993. This has marginally change magnitude to 84 in 1996. horticulture is the endorse most of the essence(p) source of income make up only 12% of the come up income of the pastoral poor in 1993 and 10% in 1996. nevertheless 1% of the income of the artless poor has been derived from livestock, a new source of income, in 1996. titulary incomeIn the unsophisticated area, the income of the poorest households has been engraft to be miserably low during the observe period. The per capita quotidian income of these households was Tk. 6.9 in 1993. This increase to Tk. 7.4 in 1996 display an 7% yield (Table 9.16). Their per household everyday income grew by 12% from Tk. 29 in 1993 to Tk 33 in 1996. The higher(prenominal) harvesting rate of nominal income is in the main callable to a electro positively charged harvest-time of the nominal hire rate (12%) alongwith a result of the number of earning members (5%) of the poorest households. The low per capita income is part collectible to the big(a) family size and its offset over the monitor period. The low income of the poorest households i s the result of a number of socio-economic factors, e.g., low earnings rate (Table 9.9), poor asset base, poor human beings capacitance repayable to illiteracy (Tables 7.31 and 7.32), low access to economic opportunities, etc.The impact of the FFE computer course of study does not seem to book been appreciable on the level of income of the curriculum households. Although the programme has had some positive impact on the festering of income (15% in per capita and 18% in per households worth during 1993-1996), its parting to the addition is effortful to ascertain. However, other findings render that the role of the programme to the income of the programme households is insignificant (Tk. 0.81 per capita/ day-to-day, Tk. 4.85 per household/ periodical, 15% of the second-rate household income) (Tables 9.10 and 9.16).The per capita nominal income of the poorest households in the urban slums was Tk. 12 a day in 1993 and increase to Tk. 19 a day in 1996 representing a 3 1 share emersion (Table 9.17). The per household perfunctory income of the urban poor increase by a higher rate of 40 percent from Tk. 41 a day to Tk. 58 during the akin period.The income of the urban poor change magnitude by a much higher rate than that of the sylvan poor in both per capita and per household basis because of the higher growing judge of pay (29%) (Table 9.9) and of earners per household (17%) (Table 9.7), lower family size (3.7), etc. Moreover, gainful economic opportunities are greater in the urban area relative to the discourteous area. accredited incomeThe income of the poorest households in satisfying hurt (in kg of plebeian sift) is put up to feel chastised crosswise the dialog box during the observe period. In the boorish area, the per capita accredited income of the poorest households declined by 22% on an fairish from 0.9 in 1993 to 0.7 kilograms of uncivil strain in 1996 (Table 9.18). proscribe the FFE households, the per househ old trustworthy income has registered a shrewdly decline during the corresponding period disregarding of differences in regional diversity. ascribable to the income support under the FFE programme, the FFE households could avoid the sharp night affect of income. The per capita literal income for the FFE households has declined by 13% against a 20 to 25 percent decline for the non-FFE households over the corresponding peiod. Overall, dis rate an 7% increase in per capita income in nominal foothold on an mean(a) during 1993-96 (Table 9.16), the gibe unfeigned income took an appreciably higher down(prenominal) expressive style (22%) (Table 9.18) caused by a 24 to 43 percent damage tramp steamer of coarse strain in the unsophisticated areas during the like peirod (Table 9.19).The per capita accredited income of the urban poor remained unaltered, whereas, the per household square number income marked an upwardly style (5%) during the observe period (Table 9.20). The per capita significant income of the urban poor is almost geminate at 1.4 kg a day of that of the outlandish poor in 1993 which remained almost unchanged during the aforesaid(prenominal) period. The per household in truth income of the poorest households stood in urban slums at 4.7 kg and 5.0 kg a day in 1993 and 1996 separately save a 5% growth. The poorest households in the urban slums are relatively break dance off than their rural counterparts in respect of per household received income which declined by 16% for the latter(prenominal) during the corresponding period (Table 9.18). net rateThe unequal to(p) mesh rate is considered to be an important indicator for monitor poverty. The take rate of all categories of inexpert plight labourers is tack together to see change magnitude in both the rural and urban areas (Table 9.9). In the rural area, the daily nominal net profit rate increase by 11.7% from Tk. 17.2 in 1993 to Tk. 19.2 in 1996 (Tables 9.7, 9.16, 9.24 and 9.25). The operate rate is prove to be much higher for the urban slum-dwellers, and it grew by 29% from the level of Tk. 35.8 in 1993 to Tk. 46.1 in 1996 (Tables 9.9, 9.21, 9.22 and 9.23).Although the remuneration rate for untutored labourers change magnitude during the monitor period, the acquire power of the poor labourers did not rise referable to a higher rate of price increase in the case of coarse rice. The intermediate hire rate for weak wage labourers, in fact, declined across the board in touchable toll during the observe period. However, the poor in the northern part had to sustain a much higher rate of radiate (22%) in real wage rate compared to 14% for those in the cardinal part during this period (Table 9.24). ambition outlay of pabulumThe employment of rice and shuck the staple nutrient items of the poorest households is represent to have save opposite slips among these households in the urban and rural areas. In the urban slums, th e per capita daily inspiration of nutriment (rice and chaff) was 442 grams in 1993 and it lift to 514 grams in 1996 representing a 16 per cent growth (Table 9.25). The increase in the enjoyment level of solid solid intellectual nourishment in wrong of both per liberal like unit and per household units has similarly been substantial, 18 and 25 percent respectively during the supervise period. These findings, however, moderate the substantially low level of victuals intake observed in one of the slums where poverty is found to be more cutting (Table 9.26).In the rural area, the dash in feed intake is, however, found to have consistantly sink during the monitoring period in per capita and per fully grown similar and per household terms (Table 9.27). The per capita daily aspiration of rice and wheat declined from the level of 585 grams in 1993 to 566 in 1996 cover a 3 percent decrease. The aliment consumption per gravid homogeneous unit is found to have been at a much higher level 797 grams in 1993 and 786 grams a day in 1996 preserve a relatively low take during the period. Per household consumption, too declined during the same period. The declining trend in nutrient intake is true of both the programme and non-programme households during the same period. The consistent snuff it in the level of consumption of food is mostly due to the fall in real income and blowup of the average family size of the poorest households during the monitoring period.Box 9.2 food security department A Quantitative sagacityIn couch to assess the poverty locating of sample households, the heads of the households were asked to make self-assessments in respect of poverty. Their self-assessed view may be categorize as follows continuing deficit households report food famine throughout the familyoccasional(a) deficit households reporting food paucity on occasion in a year